Karma and Nirvana by Paul Carus 1895-6
| Karma & Nirvana 1895-6 | Origins | Reincarnation & Karma | Taylor Swift's Karma |
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| Paul Carus, Karma (1897) and Nirvana (1896). |
1. Introduction
In December 1895 the German-born, American-resident philosopher and prolific writer Paul Carus (1852-1919) published through The Open Court Publishing Company of Chicago - a company owned by his wealthy father-in-law Edward C. Hegeler - a small, 20 page, crepe paper book entitled Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism (Carus 1895). It followed on the publication in September 1894 of a small story entitled Karma - A Tale with a Moral within The Open Court monthly magazine (Carus 1894b). The December 1895 booklet was illustrated by Japanese artist Kwasson Suzuki / Susuki Kwason (1860-1919) with traditional Japanese woodblock prints throughout. The production and printing was by the firm of Takejiro Hasegawa of Tokyo, Japan. The book - known in Japan as a Ehon, or picture book - was bound with blue silk around two holes in the spine. Each page was folded in half and joined at the open edges in fukuro-toji style (Sharf 1994).
The following year Carus published a companion work entitled Nirvana, A Story of Buddhist Philosophy, which was also printed in Japan by Hasegawa in a similar manner (Carus 1896). Hasegawa specialised in the printing of books for foreign markets, thereby helping bring to notice the art of the Japanese woodblock print at a period in time when Japonisme was at its height. The term referred to an interest in all things Japanese, especially its art and fashion. It had slowly developed in Europe following the opening of Japan to the West in 1853. On 8 July of that year American Commodore Matthew Perry led his four ships into the harbor at Tokyo Bay, seeking to re-establish for the first time in over 200 years regular trade and discourse between Japan and the western world.
Carus is perhaps most famous for the Japanese Fairy Tales Series which was first published in 1887 and distributed through Western markets up until the early 1900s. This opened a new world to the West, brought up on Grimms Fairy tales and stories of little female human-like creatures with wings who inhabited English gardens and enchanted woods alongside creatures such as goblins and gnomes.
In regard to the content of Carus's Karma, reference to the concept first appeared in The Open Court during April 1890 (Muller 1890). As reincarnation had been rejected by the Christian Church as heresy back in 553 A.D., the associated concept of karma and its implications for everyday life was little known at the time in the United States. The April 1890 mention was followed in January 1892 within an article on the modern view of ghosts (Bodington 1892). By 1894 The Open Court contained numerous references to the word, culminating in the expanded story by Carus which formed the basis for an illustrated booklet the following year.
The two small, exquisitely printed texts Karma and Nirvana were something of a landmark in regards to the introduction of those concepts throughout Western society, though they were not Carus's only Buddhist-related works. From 1882 he had published a number of books and articles on the subject, some of which are listed below. He also actively promoted Buddhism through lectures and the formation of special interest groups. This was not an easy task, when confronted with the racism and religious bigotry of the time.
Carus adopted elements of Buddhism in his own spiritual practice, which drew upon a variety of sources. The Paul Carus Wikipedia entry notes that, though raised a Protestant, he was also a pioneer of interfaith studies and an early promoter of Buddhism in the United States (Wikipedia 2020). For example, in 1894 Carus published. The Gospel of Buddha: According to Old Records, a seminal work on Buddhism. Modeled on the New Testament, it told the story of Buddha through parables, and was an important tool in introducing Buddhism to the Western world (Glessner House 2013).
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| Karma, 1st Japanese edition, 1895, front and rear cover. Source: Baxley 2020. |
Carus's work is little known today, as is its contemporary influence at the turn of the century. During his lifetime Carus published numerous texts on a variety of scientific, philosophical and religious topics, including Buddhism, many of which were also released internationally.
2. Karma and Nirvana
The present article looks briefly at the content and significance of the two books Karma and Nirvana, and attempts to clarify their publication history.
Three editions of Karma were initially printed in Japan and published through The Open Court Publishing Company in Chicago, with full colour woodblock illustrations. This occurred between 1895 and 1897, prior to the appearance of the first, American printed edition of 1903. The text Karma had first appeared during 1894 within issue no. 366 of The Open Court magazine, set up by Carus in 1887. Only a single Japanese edition of Nirvana appeared, and the first American edition was printed in 1913. Within the Japanese and American editions of both books, the illustrations were inserted in amongst the text, or as separate full page, or two page, prints. The original Japanese editions of Karma had three different cover illustrations which related to stories within the text. The third edition also included a slightly different suite of illustrations.
A detailed history of the printing of both Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism and Nirvana - A Story of Buddhist Philosophy by Takejiro Hasegawa is presented at the Baxley Stamps website, along with illustrations of some of the original pages and woodblock images (Baxley 2020 a & b). Over time the title of Karma changed from Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism, to Karma - A Story of Buddhist Ethics. Within the 1903 American edition it appears that illustrations from the three editions of Karma, and also Nirvana, were selected for inclusion. They were then retouched by Eduard Biedmann, and reprinted in black and while using the photo offset lithograph process.
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| Karma, 2nd Japanese edition, 1896, front and rear cover. Source: Baxley 2020. |
Karma was then republished and translated into numerous languages, such was its popularity. Within the 'Publishers' Advertisement' preface, which dates from 1903, there is provided a detailed translation history, noting examples then available in German, French, Japanese, Russian, Urdu, Icelandic, Tamil, Singhalese and Siamese.
An unofficial Russian translation of Karma by Leo Tolstoy was widely distributed shortly after initial publication and subsequently re-translated into French, and from there back into English. It was even published under Tolstoy's name in the United States. Carus subsequently opened up correspondence with Tolstoy over the matter, who in turn expressed concern at the incorrect attribution, whilst also heaping praise upon the original work. The latter was subsequently used to help promote the book. A 1973 combined publication of Karma and Nirvana includes an introductory comment by Tolstoy.
Both Karma and Nirvana are composed of short stories written by Carus. The present author read the 1917 edition of Karma - A Story of Buddhist Ethics during March 2020. Therein, it is listed on the title page as the 'Sixth Edition' of Karma. It comprises parables which tell the story of Buddhist monk Narada, and his encounters with a number of travellers on the way. The characters in the story are:
- Narada, a Shramana (samana) Buddhist monk;
- Pandu, a Brahman jeweller;
- Devala, a rice farmer;
- Mahaduta, Pandu's slave and subsequent rebel bandit leader; and
- Panthaka, a young samana.
The brief tale of Kandata the robber and his descent into hell is also told, with the related woodblock illustration featuring on the cover of the second edition. The various chapters in the 1917 edition - which appears to be based on the 1st edition - include the following:
- Devala's Rice-cart
- The Jeweller's Purse
- Business in Benares
- Among the Robbers
- The Spider-Web
- The Conversion of the Robber Chief
- The Converted Robber's Tomb
- The Bequest of a Good Karma
The second edition contains two additional chapters:
- Epilogue
- A Terse Statement of Buddhism
Carus adapted these stories from traditional Buddhist works, transforming them into text that was easily digestible for readers unfamiliar with Eastern ideologies, whilst nevertheless presenting a variety of complex Buddhist concepts. They read as authentic and were successful in revealing the essence of karma to a then largely ignorant Western audience. The coloured woodblock illustrations within the first two Japanese editions of Karma accompany the various chapters and include the following:
- Broken cart - front cover, 1st edition.
- Traditional design - rear cover, 1st edition.
- Kandata in hell - cover, 2nd edition.
- Scroll on table - read cover, 2nd edition.
- All rights reserve statue and globe - full page
- Upset cart - half page
- Fixed cart with Narada - half page
- Mahaduta in jail - half page
- Robbers attack Pandu's caravan - two pages
- Flames and spider's web - half page
- Narada seated amongst trees - half page
- Pandu on death bed - full page
- Crows on ledge - half page
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| Karma, 3rd Japanese edition, 1897, front and rear cover. Source: Baxley 2020. |
The illustrations within the third edition of Karma include the following:
- Mahaduta robber gang attack Pandu's caravan - front cover, 3rd edition.
- Panthaka before a door - rear cover, 3rd edition.
- Broken cart - half page
- Upset cart - half page
- Fixed cart with Narada - half page
- Mahaduta in jail - half page
- Robbers attack Pandu's caravan - 2 pages
- Climbing the spider's web - full page
- Narada seated amongst trees - half page
- Pandu on death bed - full page
- Temple - two page
The published format of Nirvana was almost identical with Karma in regards to the type of illustrations and the font used throughout.
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| Nirvana, 1st Japanese edition, 1896, front and rear cover. |
The chapter headings for the longer, 46 page Nirvana, include the following:
- Preamble
- Sudatta, the Brahman Youth, at the Plow
- The Story of the Hare
- What is Nirvana
- Begging for Alms
- The Wedding
- Anuruddha’s Sermon on Happiness
- The Controversy
- The Katha Upanishad
- The Epidemic
- Copying the Manuscript
- Young Subhuti
- The Blessed One
The colour woodblock illustrations within Nirvana include:
- Tathagata entering into Nirvana - front cover
- Dragon design - read cover
- Temple - full page
- Monk by a fire - full page
- Procession of monks - two pages
- Monks listening to a teacher - two pages
- The wedding - two pages
- Monks helping others - two pages
- Two monks talking - full page
- Seascape
- .....
The black and white illustrations for the American edition of Karma - A Story of Buddhist Ethics, include the following, taken from the original Japanese editions of Karma and Nirvana:
- Broken cart
- Upset cart
- Fixed cart with Narada
- Mahaduta in jail
- Robbers in hills
- Pandu's caravan
- Kandata in hell
- Kandata and spider web
- Narada seated amongst trees
- Tathagata entering into Nirvana
- Panthaka before a door
- Pandu on death bed
The publication between 1895-7 of Karma and Nirvana by Paul Carus and The Open Court Publishing Company of Chicago, in collaboration with T. Hasegawa of Tokyo, came at a moment in time when both Buddhism and Japonisme were new, novel and in increasingly in vogue within Western societies as both novelty and alternate philosophies or spiritual belief systems. European artists such as Vincent Van Gogh, Pissaro, Picasso, and Henri de Toulouse Latrec were heavily influenced by the art and design of the woodblock print, whilst the profound nature of Buddhism - a philosophy that was also referred to as a religion - was challenging the traditional role of Christianity and its patriarchal, controlling and often harsh belief system. More than a century later, the stories Carus put to paper, and his commentaries on Buddhism, remain relevant and readable. The associated woodblock print editions are now rare works of this traditional Japanese art.
4. Publication variants
[#1] Carus, Paul, Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism, Printed by T. Hasegawa, Tokyo, Japan, for The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1st edition, December 1895, 20p. Illustrated by Kwason Suzuki. Contains 10 coloured woodblock prints. Possibly printed in an edition of 1000 copies.
-----, ibid., 2nd Japanese edition, October 1896.
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| Karma, 2nd Japanese edition, 1896, front cover. |
-----, ibid., 3rd Japanese edition, 1897, 20p. A varied suite of illustrations were used.
-----, Karma: A Story of Buddhist Ethics, Open Court, 1903, 46p. 1st American edition. Illustrations by Kwason Suzuki printed in black and white and retouched by Eduard Biedmann. Available URL: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31633/page/n11/mode/2up.
-----, ibid., 6th edition, Open Court, 1917, 46p. Available URL: http://sourceoflightmonastery.tripod.com/webonmediacontents/1935231.pdf.
-----, ibid., Open Court, 1942, 46p.
-----, ibid., Open Court, 1973.
-----, do., Kessinger Publishing, 2004.
-----, do., Sims Press, 2011.
-----, do., Reed Books, UK, 2011.
-----, do., Hardpress Publishing, 2013, 66p.
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| Karma, 3rd Japanese edition, 1897, front cover. |
-----, do., Sagwan Press, 2015.
-----, do., Wentworth Press, US, 2016.
-----, do., Sagwan Press, 2018, 58p. Reprint of 1895 edition. Leather bound.
-----, do., Pranava Books, 2019, 46p. Reprint of 1897 edition.
-----, do., [unknown publisher], 2019, 82p. Reprint of 1903 edition. Leather bound.
-----, do., Pilgrims Book House, Katmandu, Nepal, n.d., 50p.
#2 Carus, Paul, Nirvana - A Story of Buddhist Philosophy, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1st edition, October 1896, 46p. Illustrated by Kwason Suzuki.
-----, ibid., The Open Court Publishing Company, 1902. First American edition. Available URL: https://archive.org/details/nirvnastoryofb00caru/page/n3/mode/2up.
-----, do., Open Court, 1913.
Other Buddhist publications
Carus, Paul, Songs of a Buddhist, Dresden, 1882, 60p.
----- (editor)The Open Court - A Monthly Magazine, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1887+.
----- (a),The Gospel of Buddha, according to old records, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1894, 275p; ibid., 1977, 336p.
---- (b), Karma - A Tale with a Moral,The Open Court - A Monthly Magazine, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 368, 13 September 1894.
-----,Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1895, 20p.
-----, Nirvana - A Story of Buddhist Philosophy, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1896, 46p. Available URL [1917 edition]: https://archive.org/details/nirvnastoryofb00caru/page/n3/mode/2up.
-----, The Dharma, or the Religion of Enlightenment: an Exposition of Buddhism, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1896, 50p. Available URL [3rd edition] https://archive.org/details/dharmaorreligion00caru/page/n4/mode/2up.
Buddhism and Its Christian Critics, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1897, 337p. Available URL: https://archive.org/details/buddhismanditsc02carugoog/page/n1/mode/2up.
-----, Karma: A Story of Buddhist Ethics, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1903, 46p. Available URL: https://archive.org/details/karmaastorybudd01carugoog/page/n6/mode/2up
-----,Karma / Nirvana - Two Buddhist Tales, Open Court Publishing, 1973.
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| Karma, wraparound tissue protector, circa 1897. |
5. References / Select Bibliography
Baxley, George, Books Published by T. Hasegawa - Karma, A Story of Early Buddhism by Paul Carus, First Edition [webpage], 2020. Available URL: http://www.baxleystamps.com/litho/hasegawa/karma.shtml.
-----, Books Published by T. Hasegawa - Nirvana, A Story of Buddhist Philosophy by Paul Carus, First Edition [webpage], 2020. Available URL: http://www.baxleystamps.com/litho/hasegawa/nirvana.shtml.
Bodington, Alice, A Modern View of Ghosts [concluded], The Open Court - A Monthly Magazine, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 229, 14 January 1892.
Dharmapala, H., A Buddhist on the Law of Karma, The Open Court - A Monthly Magazine, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 373, 18 October 1894.
Glessner House, Nirvana - A Story of Buddhist Philosophy, The Story of a House - Official Blog of Glessner House [blog], 19 August 2013. Available URL: http://glessnerhouse.blogspot.com/2013/08/nirvana-story-of-buddhist-philosophy.html.
HTC Rare Book Gallery, Karma - A Story of Early Buddhism, HTC Rare Book Gallery [blog], 22 April 2018. Available URL: https://htcbookgallery.wordpress.com/2018/04/22/karma-a-story-of-early-buddhism-by-paul-carus-1896/.
Kamalakaran, Ajay, The influence of Buddhism and Hinduism on Leo Tolstoy's life, Russian Beyond [website], 14 October 2014. Available URL: https://www.rbth.com/arts/2014/10/14/the_influence_of_buddhism_and_hinduism_on_leo_tolstoys_life_39017.
Muller, Max, Physical Religion, , The Open Court - A Monthly Magazine, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 138, 17 April 1890.
Payer, Alois, Materialien zum Neobuddhismus [Material for Neobuddhism]. 4. USA and Hawaii 3. Paul Carus [website], 2005. Available URL: http://www.payer.de/neobuddhismus/neobud0403.htm.
Sharf, Frederic, Takejiro Hasegawa - Meiji Japan's Preeminent Publisher of Woodblock Illustrated Crepe-paper Books, Peabody Essex Museum Collections, Salem, 1984, 77p.
Wikipedia, Paul Carus [webpage], Wikipedia, 2020. Available URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Carus.
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Last updated: 25 October 2023
Michael Organ, Australia 🇦🇺
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